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  • 1.
    book
    Micropollutant emissions (heavy metals - PCB - PAH - BTEX) from sinter plants and possible reduction strategies. European Commission. Directorate-General for Research.
    Publication
    Luxembourg : Publications Office, 2007.
    Summary
    This project aimed to characterise micro-pollutant emissions from sintering and to investigate process-integrated strategies to reduce these emissions. The ways to sample and analyse the micropollutants focussed on in this project have been clearly described and validated and can be used by the other European ironmakers. Solutions have been found to reduce the emissions of heavy metals: reduce their input by choosing the iron ores versus their heavy metal contents or by avoiding some reverts such as BF dust, increase the sinter basicity, if accepted by the Blast Furnace process, invest in a bag filter to collect the very fine dust because heavy metals are generally emitted under very fine particles (<0.5 I.μm), reduce the raw mix chlorine content because, for example, adding sea water to the mix, changes the lead partition to more being released in the waste gases and less being retained in the sinter. Solid fuels with high volatile compounds content are also not recommended, because they increase the PAHs, VOCs and methane emissions. PCBs have the same behaviour as PCDD/Fs and their contribution of WHO-12 PCBs is typically in the range 5% to 7%. So adding urea to the raw mix also seems effective in reducing PCBs emissions by a third. Activated coal injection in the waste gas stream allows an 80 % reduction of the PCB or PAH emissions and it seems also to have an interesting impact on the emissions of heavy metals. Using a metallic bag filter with zeolite injection can help to reduce the PAH emissions, but it has no PCB reduction efficiency. Injecting MEA into the gas mains does not help to reduce the PCB emission. No other good suppressant has been 1ound, except KDP, but its alkali content 1orbids ESP dust sinter recycling.
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  • 2.
    book
    Nano precipitates in steel -- NANOPREC. European Commission. Directorate-General for Research.
    Publication
    Luxembourg : Publications Office, 2006.
    Summary
    During the three years of this NANOPREC project, several new methods were explored for the: selective extraction and analysis of cementite from the steel matrix; selective extraction and analysis of Ti, V and Nb based precipitates; quantitative analysis of precipitates by XRD; quantitative analysis of the non-metallic element in precipitates by combustion analysis of filters; quantitative analysis of the C/N ratio within mixed precipitates. We learned that cementite is very comparable to iron with respect to its chemical and electrochemical stability. The procedure developed for its selective extraction is therefore very specific. The methods for extraction of Ti, V and Nb based precipitates were evaluated and a good correspondence between the labs (scatter < 10 %) was obtained. Combustion analysis was used to determine the concentration of precipitated carbon. During the project we learned that: using a glass filter with a pore size of 700 nm, good results were obtained for cementite; the drawback of this method is incomplete recovery of the extracted small precipitates; alumina filters are less suitable although they give a better recovery. Quantitative XRD, based on a direct comparison method, was used for the analysis of cementite in steel. Measurements are performed directly on the steel sample. A good correspondence between XRD, chemistry results and expected value was obtained. The detection limit of this method is approx. 2 wt %. For other types of precipitates, XRD was performed on extracted precipitate fractions and on synthetic powders. TEM work was concentrated on the determination of the C/N ratio within combined precipitates. Several approaches were followed: combined TEM/EELS experiments; combined TEM/EDX analysis of the N peak only (+ calculated C); determining the lattice parameters in HRTEM. No correspondence was found between the techniques and it is difficult to decide which is the most accurate.
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  • 3.
    book
    Fatigue guidelines for thin high strength steel joint structures. European Commission. Directorate-General for Research.
    Publication
    Luxembourg : Publications Office, 2007.
    Summary
    Fatigue performance of thin HSS joint structures. Based on the experimental results obtained in this project and some assessment we were able to come up with, the following fatigue guidelines for thin HSS sheet joint structures should be followed. - Avoid peel loading. - Prefer adhesive bonding above laser overlap welding when considering a continuous joining method. - Prefer mechanical joining (self-piercing riveting and TOX clinching) above resistance spot welding when considering a non-continuous joining method. - Optimise geometrical aspects as first priority and choice of HSS sheet material as second. - Neglect mean stress on both self-piercing rivets and laser overlap welds for fatigue ratios of R < 0.5. -Make sure, when self-piercing riveting, to put stronger and/or thicker HSS on top. The above given fatigue guidelines are general and could be applied for most common cases. In a particular case some reserves were made. CAE fatigue analysis tools for laser overlap welds and self-piercing rivets. Investigations into test specimens, including stress analysis by FEM and correlation of the analysis results with the corresponding experimental results have been performed. Software programs for the proposed analysis models have been developed and stress-life relations have been determined. The proposed analysis models have been validated with generated test data, including data with different fatigue ratios and dissimilar sheet thickness and material. Results have shown that the proposed analysis models for laser overlap welds and self-piercing rivets can make life predictions within the scatter band of a factor of 10.
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  • 4.
    book
    Large web openings for service integration in composite floors. European Commission. Directorate-General for Research.
    Publication
    Luxembourg : Publications Office, 2006.
    Summary
    In the framework of the project 7210-PR-315, experimental and analytical investigations into the behaviour of steel and composite beams with web openings were carried out on the following key aspects: the design of steel and composite beams with multiple regular and single large web openings under normal (cold) conditions; the development of design software for steel and composite beams with single large web openings and design aids for steel and composite cellular beams; the design of steel and composite beams with multiple regular web openings under fire conditions; the improved manufacture of cellular beams. A huge number of large-scale tests have been performed. From the test results, the numerical simulations and the analytical investigations remaining questions concerning the design of steel and composite beams with web openings could be answered. This report is divided into the following parts: Part 1 contains a summary, general information on the project and a brief description of the works performed. In Part 2 test reports, analyses, evaluations and design models are presented in detail. Design recommendations and predesign aids are given in Part 3 of the report. The CD-ROM enclosed with the report contains: Part 1, Part 2 and Part 3 of the report as PDF files; software for the design of steel and composite beams with single large web openings; an interactive document including hypertext links for the predesign of cellular steel and composite beams fabricated from I-sections; design aids such as loading tables are presented in terms of graphs and tables.
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  • 5.
    book
    Neuro-fuzzy systems to improve the control of the electric arc furnace process. European Commission. Directorate-General for Research.
    Publication
    Luxembourg : Publications Office, 2004.
    Summary
    The general aim of the project is to improve the process controlling and increasing the process stability and reliability of electric arc furnaces by using neuro-fuzzy methods. Subjects of the project were energy consumption, environmental aspects, the foreseeing of chemical parameters, control of the charging of the second scrap basket and secondary metallurgical aspects. Some results obtained are listed below. - ln general, material mix has some influence on energy consumption, energy losses and off-gas temperature of EAF. - Tap-to-tap time and blown oxygen (lance oxygen) have a strong influence on exhaust losses. Dust load has a correlation with blown oxygen. - A dynamic off-gas temperature model based on feed-forward neural networks was developed, and, as an alternative, ARMAX (auto-regressive moving average with exogenous inputs). - Subtractive clustering techniques combined with fuzzy logic techniques were used to obtain a model that can foresee the parameters of hot metal quality for four to five minutes before the casting. - Sy using fuzzy logic control, a dynamic model able to simulate the process of an electric furnace was developed. - With PLS (partial least squares projection on latent structures) techniques it was possible to monitor the progress of the melting of the remaining time and energy until charging of the second scrapbasket of EAF. Also, good results were obtained in predicting the carbon and manganese content. - Using MARS (multi-adaptive regression spline), it was found that some relations exist between practices of secondary steelmaking and strip inclusion type B and D obtained in coil in a CSP. - A model developed of refractory wearing has been demonstrated to be very useful for controlling and managing ladles from secondary metallurgy.
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  • 6.
    book
    New developments for the quantification of non-conductive materials (slags, inclusions) in the steel industry by optical emission spectrometries (laser, spark). European Commission. Directorate-General for Research.
    Publication
    Luxembourg : Publications Office, 2005.
    Summary
    Spark source OES has been developed intensively during recent year, leading to the use of pulse discrimination analysis (PDA-OES) to provide information about metal desoxidation. At the end of this research (applied on low carbon and stainless grades), we can conclude that some degree of consistency has emerged from the various inclusions content assessment methods considered (chemical analysis, optical emission spectrometry and electron microscopy with EDS analysis). The PDA-OES calibrations have been developed on different elements such as Al, Ca, Mg or Ti to quantify inclusion contents by PDA-OES techniques. The two sources (laser and spark) have been studied. The main difficulties are observed for elements which are not soluble in steel, such as Ca or Mg. For these elements, the developed calibration curves are limited. The ability of the PDA-spark-OES technique to be applied in the same sequence as bulk analysis during steel-making analysis control is demonstrated. This research project has demonstrated the capability of the automated microline-imaging LIBS for fast generating multi-elemental chemical maps in both two- and three-dimensional formats of inclusionary in different steel grades. A new slag sampling method can provide a glass bead directly on the steel plant floor, this glass bead being amenable to direct XRF analysis of slag in the steel shop. The use of the laser-OES technique in the steel shop is in progress and some improvements are necessary to have a real apparatus adapted for steel and slag analysis with the same analytical criteria as spark-OES and XRF.
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  • 7.
    book
    Control of inclusion, slag foaming and temperature in vacuum degassing. European Commission. Directorate-General for Research.
    Publication
    Luxembourg : Publications Office, 2003.
    Summary
    Vacuum treatment is the most utilised process for the production of quality steel with strict demands on cleanliness and low contents of hydrogen, nitrogen and sulphur. To improve the process performance and to develop new process-control functions, collaborative research between MEFOS, BFI, Sidenor, ABS and Ovako has been carried out. In the work, the steel grades 100Cr6 and C70, common to the three steel plants in the group, were selected for the investigations. This project has focused on inclusion refining, temperature control and methods to suppress disturbances from slag foaming. The outcome of the project is now available in a real-time software package where the new control modules are integrated as extended functionality of a previously developed process-control system. The work was based on extensive assessments of the vacuum units at ABS, Sidenor and Ovako. In the work, established as well as new methods for supervision, measurement and analysis were used and evaluated. The analysis of information and process data obtained was predominantly made with the help of extended process-control models and newly developed CFD models for inclusion refining and slag foaming.
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  • 8.
    book
    Membrane-bioreactor system for treatment of nitrates in pickling process wastewater. European Commission. Directorate-General for Research.
    Publication
    Luxembourg : Publications Office, 2006.
    Summary
    An innovative high efficient process for biological treatment of wastewater from pickling lines with a high nitrate-concentration in a new membrane-bioreactor has been developed. Compared to other processes for treatment of high concentrated nitrate wastewater, like reverse osmosis or ion exchange, nitrate will be converted into gaseous nitrogen, carbon dioxide and biomass. The developed treatment process reduces in a cost-effective way nitrates in pickling wastewater. The cost analysis showed that for exemplarily pickling process effluents the treatment costs amount to EUR 1 to 9 per m3 process water with nitrate concentrations up to 6,750 mgNO3-N/L. The very stable biological treatment process is a useful completion of the process for common pickling bath regeneration plants. All results of the research project were used for scale up of the treatment process to industrial scale. For this a control concept and a nitrate online measurement were tested and implemented in an operational bypass membrane bio-reactor system. Because of higher investment and operational costs as well as membrane fouling the use of a microfiltration membrane for biomass retention should be decided specific under economical aspects. Alternative possibilities for biomass retention were discussed. The developed biological treatment process reduces nitrate in process water cost effective. It is a very good alternative to the expensive total regeneration of pickling acids. In combination with common processes for pickling bath regeneration the developed biological treatment process helps to avoid any nitrate emissions of the pickling with nitric acid.
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  • 9.
    book
    Evaluation of the capability of spray forming for the production of very high alloyed steels without necessity of heavy hot working. European Commission. Directorate-General for Research.
    Publication
    Luxembourg : Publications Office, 2007.
    Summary
    Spray forming (SF) is a new production route for high-alloyed steels. The aim of the project was the production of high-alloyed complex steels by this technique and the comparison of the materials quality with materials from established production routes. Therefore, medium-sized billets from X210Cr12, X220CrVMo13-4, X290Cr12, HS6-5-2C, X40CrMoV5-1, X2CrNiMoN22-5-3 and X6Cr17 steels are spray formed and processed to semi-finished material at low degree of deformation. The results show a wide capability of spray forming to produce complex steels on a high technological level. The analysis of the semi-finished products has focused on microstructure, strength, impact toughness, thermal fatigue resistance and wear resistance. The tool steels show equivalent behaviour during heat treatment. Their microstructure is homogenous with small-sized carbides in SF quality, while there are lines of large carbides in cast (C) quality. SF includes randomly distributed larger sized carbides than PM. Originating from these microstructural differences impact toughness and bending strength as well as their isotropy ascends from the state of C via SF to PM quality. Concerning wear resistance the observed differences among the production routes in general are small. Stainless steel qualities show similar mechanical behaviour to conventionally produced material despite low degree of deformation. 'Tailoring' high quality material in small heats is therefore possible, thus giving the chance of production of application-adapted alloys on demand. Together with the capability of spray forming to produce freestanding shapes and reduced need of hotworking, it might become an advantageous way of producing complex tools and components.
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  • 10.
    book
    High nitrogen stainless steels by AOD/VOD process : special and alloy steels: final report. European Commission. Directorate-General for Research.
    Publication
    Luxembourg : Publications Office, 2001.
    Summary
    This report presents the actions carried out during the project 7210-MA-320 concerning the elaboration and the metallurgy of stainless steels with a high nitrogen content. In order to determine the nitrogen solubility of these steels, two models from the literature were tested and compared to experimental results. It was shown that the Thermocalc model gives better estimations. What is more, the experimental results were used to determine a new accurate model. In order to improve the nitrogen alloying during the steel-making practice, a model describing the nitrogen gas dissolution kinetics during bottom stirring in ladle was adapted to stainless steels (taking into account the effect of alloying elements on the solubility, diffusion coefficient and interfacial reaction rates of nitrogen in the liquid metal). A good agreement was obtained between nitrogen yields predicted by the model and obtained during industrial heats. The model can then be used to improve the efficiency of nitrogen bubbling during the steel-making practice. In order to improve our knowledge of the metallurgy of these steels, their solidification was studied with numerical models whose results were compared to experimental results. Good results were obtained when the Ceqcsl software, constant partition coefficients, and an Ni equivalent were used.
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  • 11.
    book
    Reduction of iron ores : further developments in blast furnace injection. European Commission. Directorate-General for Research.
    Publication
    Luxembourg : Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, 2001-07-17.
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  • 12.
    book
    Application de la spectrométrie à torche à plasma inductif à l'industrie sidérurgique. Commission of the European Communities. DG XII – Science, Research and Development.
    Publication
    Luxembourg : [Office for Official Publications of the European Communities], 1983.
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  • 13.
    book
    Physical metallurgy of rolling and finishing : precipitation behaviour in the ferrite range of soft microalloyed ULC steel grades. European Commission. Directorate-General for Research.
    Publication
    Luxembourg : Publications Office, 2001.
    Summary
    Thin sheet material for the automotive industry, produced with an excellent balance between strength level and formability and an additional bake hardening behaviour, is still gaining importance. One possible approach to meet this goal — particularly for the production via a hot-dip galvanising line — is the use of partially stabilised ULC grades. Due to the very low alloy content of this material the precipitation of carbides, which controls the carbon content in solid solution and thus the BH level, takes place in the ferritic range. In comparison to the austenitic range, few investigations have been carried out in the past for the ferritic range. During this project such partially stabilised thin sheet material was produced on an industrial scale as well as via pilot lines and annealing simulators. Additionally, the hot-rolling step was simulated with compression tests. The microstructure and mechanical properties were investigated in detail on the samples. Particular attention was given to the characterisation of the precipitates with TEM and the measurement of the carbon content in solid solution. Simultaneously thermodynamic and kinetic modelling of the precipitates was performed and the results were compared with the experimental results from the TEM investigations and the results from the internal friction measurements. A thermodynamic and kinetic model was developed in the course of the project and the agreement between the results from experimental investigations — mainly from TEM and internal friction measurement — and modelling were acceptable in general. The experimental results show that the C content in solid solution and hence the BH behaviour are mainly determined by the chemistry; the other processing parameters such as coiling temperature, cooling rate on the run-out table and the annealing parameters have a minimal influence. However, the mechanical properties such as strength level and particularly the r-values are significantly influenced by the processing parameters.
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  • 14.
    book
    Detection of defects on hot sections and semis. Commission of the European Communities. DG XII – Science, Research and Development.
    Publication
    Luxembourg : [Office for Official Publications of the European Communities], 1983.
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  • 15.
    book
    Determination of the inorganic and organometallic compounds present at low concentration levels on steel products : analytical techniques for processes, products and the environment: final report. European Commission. Directorate-General for Research.
    Publication
    Luxembourg : Publications Office, 2001.
    Summary
    A powerful modular methodology was developed for a complete characterisation of the oil film on sheet steel, which allows the analysis of organic and organometallic compounds, salts and solid particles. The method is based on extraction with a xylene/methanol mixture and ICPMS analysis. Aerosol dissolution is a must. It can be combined seamlessly with other methods, such as DATAM, or the solid particles can be isolated instead of analysed, and characterised by scanning electron microscopy. The modular structure of the method allows a smooth adaptation, for example tool-anddie sets in tribological experiments, steel sheet deformed by the Erichsen test and the analysis of very small amounts of oil as such. The causes of the non-linear shape of ICPMS calibration graphs in the case of oil containing dissolved aerosols have been studied thoroughly, and the mechanism is now understood in terms of the so-called zoning model. Linear calibration lines are obtained consistently by thermodynamic buffering of the plasma by adding a relatively high concentration (10 ppm) of an element with a medium ionisation potential. A variety of elements was chosen to demonstrate the application of the method in different fields. The oil film on carbon steel sheet and galvanised and stainless steel sheet was analysed, as well as bulk samples of oil, emulsion, oil relicts after a tribological experiment and Erichsen cups. Most concentrations lie in or even below the g/m2 level. Absolute quantitative detection limits in the pg-range were reached. The oil film on sheet steel is not only very heterogeneously distributed, but its composition in terms of inorganic chemistry is also heterogeneous. Therefore, it is of vital importance to design very carefully any experiment with respect to adequate sampling, a representative sample and an undisturbed transfer of the sample to the lab for extraction. The method allows for total quality assurance, and the tools were generated to guarantee that customers get what they expect, for example as far as protective oil is concerned. It was proven that steel has a very environment-friendly surface: most toxic and environment-unfriendly compounds are not detected even by this extremely sensitive method, and if detected the concentrations found were extremely low. This method allows the positive compatibility of steel with nature to be proven and to make sure that customers who use steel in their products are rewarded by an easily obtained ECO-label.
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  • 16.
    book
    Reduction of iron ores : development of technologies for treatment of dust and sludges containing zinc and lead to improve their recycle and reuse. European Commission. Directorate-General for Research.
    Publication
    Luxembourg : Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, 2001-06-20.
    Summary
    Four different technologies for dusts treatment coming from EAF and BOS have been settled. Many of the problems encountered have been solved by both pyrometallurgical and hydrometallurgical line with resulting notable environmental benefits. BS carried out excellent zinc removal for achieving low levels of zinc in a highly metallised product by processing briquettes and/or pellets through a rapid thermal treatment at 1300°C. A zinc rich filtrate can also be produced to be sold to the zinc manufacturing industry. The VASL investigations carried out with a laboratory plant showed that dezincification with dusts from LD process under conditions of short residence time and high temperature was possible, but with grain size below 125 μm. CENIM, through a long cycle of pellets treatments pointed out that it was possible to recover all the zinc contained into the EAF dusts. CSM, starting from powders rich in ZnO and coming from an arc-plasma industrial furnace, pointed out a hydrometallurgical line at laboratory scale thinking to combine a pyro-hydro process since the pyro line is already present at industrial level Terni Steelworks.
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  • 17.
    book
    Development of techniques to minimise ladle/slag interaction and prevent uncontrolled inclusion modification : secondary steelmaking: final report. European Commission. Directorate-General for Research.
    Publication
    Luxembourg : Publications Office, 2001.
    Summary
    The main goals of this collaborative multinational project involving BSC (UK), IRSID (France) and CRDM (France) are: to identify detailed mechanisms of mass transfer from refractory lining of ladles towards steel in the two situations, carbon pick-up by ultra-low carbon steels from C-bearing refractories at slag line (IRSID and CRDM), contamination of metal by glazed ladle lining from previous casts (BSC); to improve process practices in ladle that minimise both aspects (IRSID, CRDM, BSC); and thus to contribute to casting higher quality steels by better control of steel inclusion populations and of steel composition (carbon in ultra-low carbon steel) at ladle stage of the elaboration (IRSID, CRDM, BSC).
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  • 18.
    book
    Optimization of stiffeners in thin walled plate girders. Commission of the European Communities. DG XII – Science, Research and Development.
    Publication
    Luxembourg : [Office for Official Publications of the European Communities], 1983.
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  • 19.
    book
    Casting and solidification: optimisation of the straightening process in continuous casting. European Commission. Directorate-General for Research.
    Publication
    Luxembourg : Publications Office, 2001-07-26.
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  • 20.
    book
    Control of ejections caused by bubble bursting in secondary steelmaking processes : secondary steelmaking: final report. European Commission. Directorate-General for Research.
    Publication
    Luxembourg : Publications Office, 2001.
    Summary
    Nearly all secondary metallurgy processes applied to high quality steel production today use gas for metallurgical and/or thermal homogenisation of the melt. Furthermore, gas is also used in flotation processes to remove non-metallic inclusions. A side-effect of gas stirring is the formation of fine droplets of metal and slag when the gas bubbles burst upon leaving the melt. The bursting of bubbles at the melt or top slag surface in most cases leads to ejection of small melt or slag particles which, if nothing else, decreases the process yield. For those cases where the exhaust gas intercepting and cleaning systems are suitably adapted to such process conditions dust generation does not give rise to any problems apart from the need for handling and recycling or dumping. However, in many cases these ejections lead to the formation of skulls in the metallurgical vessels or at the inner walls of the hot gas ducts to the filters or blowers. These skulls may cause pressure drops in the exhaust gas cleaning system and have a severely detrimental effect on the process. The subject of the proposed project was to investigate the ejection of liquid droplets from gas-stirred melts as a function of metal and slag properties including also the gas injection methods, gas flow rates and surface-active additives. The aim was to acquire sufficient knowledge to control the ejections caused by bubble bursting with respect to quantity and size range of the droplets and then to find the optimum process parameters for high productivity, low accretion rate and small dust losses. The intention was to include both laboratory and bench scale investigations and plant trials to clarify the correlation between bubble bursting, droplet formation, gas injection method and melt properties, and then to demonstrate the effect of these correlations on the formation of skulls in the reactor vessel, and on metal losses due to droplet entrainment with the offgas.
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